Journal of Cognitive Strategies in Learning

Journal of Cognitive Strategies in Learning

The Effectiveness of Choice Theory Training on Cognitive Flexibility and Self-Criticism in Mothers of Children with Hearing Impairment

Document Type : Research Article

Authors
Tayebeh Nazary Kahangi 1
Mohammad Ashori 2
1 MA. Student of Psychology and Education of People with Special Needs, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
2 Associate Professor, Department of Psychology and Education of People with Special Needs, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
10.22084/j.psychogy.2025.31153.2807
Abstract
Objective: The present research was aimed to investigate the effect of choice theory training on cognitive flexibility and self-criticism in mothers of children with hearing impairment.
Methods: This study was carried out using an experimental method and a pre-test, post-test design with a control group. The statistical population of the research included mothers of children with hearing impairment in Isfahan city. The research sample size was 30 people, who were selected using convenience sampling method and randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group of 15 people. Intervention was implemented for the experimental group during 8 sessions of 60 minutes, but no training was provided to the control group. In this research, the Dennis & Vander Wal Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (2010) and Thompson & Zuroff Self-Criticism Scale (2004) was used. Data were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance.
Results: The findings showed that choice theory training had a positive and significant effect on cognitive flexibility and self-criticism in mothers of children with hearing impairment in the experimental group and the effect size of each was 82 and 78% respectively.
Conclusions: Based on the results, teaching choice theory leads to improved cognitive flexibility and self-criticism of individuals by satisfying needs such as survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun.
Keywords
Choice Theory
Cognitive Flexibility
Hearing Impairment
Self-Criticism
Subjects
ارفع، مریم و عاشوری، محمد (1403). کیفیت زندگی مادران کودکان ناشنوا: تجربه زیسته با رویکرد پدیدارشناسی. روانشناسی افراد استثنایی، 14(56)، 213-250. https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2025.79265.2692
امیری، مسلم، مصرآبادی، جواد، فرید، ابوالفضل، و شیخ علیزاده، سیاوش (1401). فراتحلیل پژوهش‌های داخلی در زمینۀ اثربخشی مداخلات آموزشی-درمانی مبتنی بر تئوری انتخاب بر مدیریت رفتار فردی. فصل‌نامه پژوهش‌های کاربردی روانشناختی، 13(2)، 325-350. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2022.321049.643800
بابایی مطلق، فاطمه و تنها، زهرا (1402). مقایسه اثربخشی فرزندپروری مبتنی بر ذهن‌آگاهی با فرزندپروری مبتنی بر نظریه انتخاب پریشانی روان‌شناختی در مادران دارای کودک مبتلا به اختلال لجبازی- نافرمانی مقابله‌ای. پژوهش در روان‌درمانی کودک و نوجوان، 2(1)، 36-21. https://doi.org/10.22098/rcap.2023.2406
جبلی، مهرناز و خادمی، علی (1399). مقایسۀ انعطاف‌پذیری و سرسختی روان‌شناختی در مادران کودکان استثنایی (ناشنوا، نابینا، با نا‌توانی هوشی). مجله مطالعات ناتوانی، 10، 8-18. http://jdisabilstud.org/article-1-866-fa.html
جلیل‌آبکنار، سیده سمیه (1403). اثربخشی آموزش راهبردهای تنظیم هیجان بر تاب‌آوری و انعطاف‌پذیری شناختی مادران کودکان کم‌توان ذهنی. فصلنامه پژوهش‌های نوین روانشناختی، 19(76)، 74-83. https://doi.org/10.22034/jmpr.2024.62514.6301
حسن‌ساجدی، مژده، قدرتی میرکوهی، مهدی و عبداللهی بقرآبادی، قاسم (1403). تأثیر رویکرد پذیرش و تعهد مبتنی بر شفقت به خود بر بهزیستی و انعطاف‌پذیری روان‌شناختی نوجوانان. مطالعات روان‌شناختی، 20(3)، 125-141. https://doi.org/10.22051/psy.2024.47097.2956
حسینی سهی، مینو سادات، درتاج، فریبرز و ابراهیمی قوام، صغری (1403). اثربخشی برنامه آموزشی فرزندپروری مبتنی برذهن آگاهی برکیفیت روابط والد-کود ک و استرس فرزندپروری والدین کودکان سن پیش از دبستان شهر تهران. روان‌شناسی مدرسه و آموزشگاه، 13(2)، 71-86. https://doi.org/10.22098/jsp.2024.13420.5639
حسینی‌مهر، نجمه، خضری مقدم، نوشیروان و پوراحسان، سمیه (1400). اثربخشی آموزش مبتنی بر شفقت بر خودکارآمدی اجتماعی، تحمل پریشانی و خودانتقادی در دختران نوجوان تحت سرپرستی سازمان بهزیستی. پژوهش‌نامه روانشناسی مثبت، 7(2)، 33-48. https://doi.org/10.22108/ppls.2021.123728.1959
خداپناه، فاطمه و محمدی‌فر، محمدعلی (1403). اثربخشی آموزش قدردانی بر بهزیستی اجتماعی، احساس تعلق به مدرسه و انعطاف‌پذیری شناختی دانش‌آموزان نوجوان. راهبردهای شناختی در یادگیری، 12(23)، 151-172. https://doi.org/10.22084/j.psychogy.2024.29804.2728
خونساری، میناسادات، تاجری، بیوک، سرداری‌پور، مهران، حاتمی، محمد و حسین‌زاده تقوایی، مرجان (1400). مقایسة اثربخشی آموزش گروهی مبتنی بر شفقت و تئوری انتخاب بر احساس شرم و سطوح خودانتقادی دانش‌آموزان دختر. فصل‌نامه پژوهش‌های کاربردی روانشناختی، 12(2)، 341-356. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2021.306866.643588
رحمتی کهخا، محمد، مرزیه، افسانه و جناآبادی، حسین (1402). اثربخشی آموزش راهبردهای یادگیری خودتنظیمی بر انعطاف‌پذیری شناختی و تفکر تأملی در دانش‌آموزان. راهبردهای شناختی در یادگیری، 11(21)، 123-136. https://doi.org/10.22084/j.psychogy.2023.27017.2529
دانادل، مهرشید و عاشوری، محمد (1403). تاثیر آموزش نظم‌بخشی به هیجان بر حساسیت بین‎فردی در نوجوانان با آسیب شنوایی. فصلنامه کودکان استثنایی، 24(4)، 31-40. https://doi.org/10.52547/joec.24.4.31
عاشوری، محمد و رشیدی، اعظم (1398). اثربخشی آموزش راهبردهای تنظیم شناختی هیجان بر انعطاف‌پذیری شناختی دانش‌آموزان ناشنوا. توانمندسازی کودکان استثنایی، 10(2)، 250-259. https://doi.org/10.22034/ceciranj.2019.95994
مظاهری تهرانی، فیروزه، کوکلی، معصومه، صوابی نیری، وحید و بی‌کس یکانی، مهدیه (1401). اثربخشی آموزش واقعیت‌درمانی بر انعطاف‌پذیری شناختی و تمایزیافتگی خود در مادران دارای کودکان با اختلال یادگیری خاص. فصلنامه سلامت روان کودک، ۹(۱)، ۸۴-۹۹.https://doi.org/10.52547/jcmh.9.1.7
نوربالا، فاطمه، برجعلی، احمد و نوربالا، احمدعلی (1392). اثر تعاملی شفقت ‌به‌ خود و نشخوار فکری بیماران افسرده در درمان مبتنی ‌بر شفقت. دانشور پزشکی، 21(1)، 77-84. https://daneshvarmed.shahed.ac.ir/article_1567.html?lang=en
Aanondsen, C. M., Jozefiak, T., Lydersen, S., Heiling, K., & Rimehaug, T. (2023). Deaf and hard-of-hearing children and adolescents’ mental health, quality of life and communication. BMC Psychiatry, 23(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04787-9
Ban, Y., Sun, J., Bai, B., & Liu, J. (2024). Parent-adolescent attachment and well-being among Chinese hearing-impaired students: The mediating role of resilience and the moderating role of emotional and behavioral problems. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 36(1), 111-124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-023-09899-4
Behmanesh, Z., Kheramine, S., & Ramezani, K. (2021). The effect of choice theory-based group training on cognitive emotion regulation and parent-child relationship in male adolescents. Iranian Journal of Health Sciences, 9(1), 12-21. https://doi.org/10.18502/jhs.v9i1.5969
Bhuvaneswari, S., & Kaur, J. (2024). Exploring reality therapy: A case study on adolescent emotional recovery amidst family conflict. IAPS Journal of Practice in Mental Health 2(2), 43-47. https://doi.org/10.4103/IJPMH.IJPMH_14_24
Canjuga, I., Kozina, G., Mijoč, V., Dretar, E., Breček, A., Novak, V., Lončarić Kelečić, I. (2025). Self-criticism, self-encouragement and test emotions: A cross-sectional study of croatian health students. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 20(3), e736-e744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2025.02.015
Dall, M., Kiblböck, S., Müllegger, D., Fellinger, J., Hofer, J., Kapplmüller, R., Breitwieser, S., Schossleitner, K., Weber, C., Zöhrer, R., & Holzinger, D. (2022). Understanding the impact of child, intervention, and family factors on developmental trajectories of children with hearing loss at preschool age: Design of the child study. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(6), 1508. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11061508
Dennis, J. P., & Vander Wal, J. S. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive Therapy Research, (34)3, 241-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9276-4
de Gracia, M. R. L., de Rosnay, M., Hawes, D. J., & Perez, M. V. T. (2021). Differences in emotional knowledge among Filipino deaf children, adolescents, and young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 180, 110967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110967
Emmett, S. D., Platt, A., Gallo, J. J., Labrique, A. B., Wang, N. Y., Inglis-Jenson, M., & Robler, S. K. (2023). Prevalence of childhood hearing loss in rural Alaska. Ear and Hearing, 44(5), 1240-1250. https://doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0000000000001368
Gillespie, A. N., Smith, L., Shepherd, D. A., Xu, J., Khanal, R., & Sung, V. (2023). Socio-emotional experiences and wellbeing of deaf and hard of hearing children and their parents before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Children, 10(7), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10071147
Glasser, W. (2001). Counseling with choice theory: The new reality therapy. Harper Collins. https://www.amazon.com/Counseling-Choice-Theory-William-Glasser/dp/0060953667
Haukedal, C. L., Wie, O. B., Schauber, S. K., Lyxell, B., Fitzpatrick, E. M., & von Koss Torkildsen, J. (2022). Social communication and quality of life in children using hearing aids. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 152, 111000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2021.111000
Liu, C., Chen, H., Xu, W., Dai, S., & Lin, S. (2024). The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in home-school co-education and psychological well-being among Chinese vocational college students. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1422845. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1422845
MacNaul, H., Garcia, R., Cividini-Motta, C., & Thacker, I. (2021). Effect of assignment choice on student academic performance in an online class. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 14(4), 1074–1078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-021-00566-8
Navarro, M. C., Quiroz Molinares, N., & Mebarak, M. (2022). Psychometric Study of the cognitive flexibility inventory in a Colombian sample. International Journal of Psychological Research, 15(1), 42-54. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.5371
Noemi Schoop-Kasteler. (2022) Staff-perceived social status and social skills of students with intellectual disabilities in special needs schools. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 3, 100–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/19315864.2022.2029644
Ong, C. W., Whicker, J. J., Muñoz, K., & Twohig, M. P. (2019). Measuring psychological inflexibility in adult and child hearing loss. International Journal of Audiology, 58(10), 643–650. https://doi.org/10.1080/14992027.2019.1630759
Passarello, N., Lopez, E. T., Gigliotta, O., Turriziani, P., Lucidi, F., & Mandolesi, L. (2025). Can an active lifestyle maintain cognitive efficiency in older adults? A pilot study of the relationship between physical activity and graphic fluency. BMC Psychol, 13, 1-9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02466-w
Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 270-300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270
Porcar-Gozalbo, N., López-Zamora, M., Valles-González, B., & Cano-Villagrasa, A. (2024). Impact of hearing loss type on linguistic development in children: A cross-sectional study. Audiology Research, 14(6), 1014–1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/audiolres14060084
Ruth, C. E., & Green, K. T. (2020). Mindful parenting. In mindfulness for everyday living (pp. 69–84). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51618- 5_6
Sahebi, A., Zalizadeh, M., & Zalizadeh, M. (2015). Choice theory: An approach to accountability. Rooyesh. 4(2), 113–134. http://frooyesh.ir/article-1-40-fa.html
Schäfer, J., Reuter, T., Leuchter, M., & Karbach, J. (2024). Executive functions and problem-solving-The contribution of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility to science problem-solving performance in elementary school students. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 244, 105962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105962
Sealy, J., McMahon, C., & Sweller, N. (2023). Parenting deaf children: Exploring relationships between resolution of diagnosis, parenting styles and morale, and perceived child vulnerability. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 32(9), 2761-2775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-023-02579-z
Shi, B., Mou, H., Tian, S., Meng, F., & Qiu, F. (2022). Effects of acute exercise on cognitive flexibility in young adults with different levels of aerobic fitness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9106. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159106
Shende, S. A., & Mudar, R. A. (2023). Cognitive control in age-related hearing loss: A narrative review. Hearing Research, 436, 108814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2023.108814
Šoková, B., Greškovičová, K., Halamová, J., & Baránková, M. (2025). Breaking the vicious cycles of self-criticism: A qualitative study on the best practices of overcoming one's inner critic. BMC Psychology, 13(1), 266. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02250-2
Vestberg, T., Lebedev, A. V., Jacobsen, H. B., Lekander, M., Sparding, T., Landén, M., Maurex, L., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2024). Cognitive flexibility is associated with sickness resilience. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1253152. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1253152
Wang, C., Zheng, J., Shen, G., Chen, H., Ye, X., Li, C. H., & Wu, B. (2025). The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between social support and non-suicidal self-injury among adolescents: a multicenter cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1546751. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1546751
Xie, J., Yang, L., & Li, S. (2025). The roles of parental psychological flexibility, mindfulness, and self-compassion in affecting mental health and self-efficacy in parents of children with or without hearing loss: An analysis of the parallel mediation model. Nursing Open, 12(4), e70180. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.70180
Xiao, Y., Liu, Y., Han, J., Li, Y., Zhang, L., Bai, L., Wang, X., Yin, Y., Wang, S., Tang, X., Sun, X., & Yang, Y. (2024). Cross-cultural adaptation, reliability, and validity of the Chinese version of the acceptance and action questionnaire-management of child hearing loss. International Journal of Audiology, 63(2), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/14992027.2022.2131637
Zaccari, V., Mancini, F., & Rogier, G. (2024). State of the art of the literature on definitions of self-criticism: A meta-review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15, 1239696. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1239696
Zaidman-Zait, A., & Most, T. (2020). Pragmatics and peer relationships among deaf, hard of hearing, and hearing adolescents. Pediatrics, 146(3), 298–303. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-0242J
Journal of Cognitive Strategies in Learning
Volume 14, Issue 26 - Serial Number 26
Spring & Summer 2026
August 2026
Pages 75-91