Meta-Analysis of Gender Differences in Metacognition and its Components

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

1 Master's degree in Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Shahid Madani University of Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Iran

2 Professor of Educational Psychology Department, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Shahid Madani University of Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Iran

3 Associate Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Shahid Madani University of Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Iran

Abstract

Objective: During the last three decades, researchers have investigated gender differences in metacognition, and many of their results have been contradictory; Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a meta-analysis in order to achieve a comprehensive result in this field. In this regard, the aim of the current research is to combine the results obtained in this field.
Method: The method used in this research is meta-analysis. The statistical population was all the researches published in the country between 991-2021. After reviewing the primary studies, 350 effect sizes from 128 selected studies were included in the analysis process. In order to collect information, Mesrabadi checklist (2015), combined effect size with two fixed and random effects models, funnel plot, sensitivity analysis, regression and CMA2 and SPSS22 software were used. In this research, Hedges g index was used among the types of d indices.
Results: Data analysis showed that the overall effect size is -0.018 in the fixed model and -0.022 in the random model. Considering the heterogeneity of the effect sizes, sub-components and moderating variable (age) were analyzed. The results showed that the difference obtained in the total metacognition index and its various components, according to the interpretation of Cohen's d criterion, is lower than the small level.
Conclusion: As a result, there was no difference between girls and boys in the overall metacognition index and its components. Also, the age of the subjects did not play the role of a moderating variable on the relationship between metacognition and gender.

Keywords

Main Subjects


Akin, E. (2016). Examining the relation between metacognitive understanding of what is listened to and metacognitive awareness levels of secondary school students. Educational Research and Reviews, 11(7), 390-401. DOI:10.5897/ERR2015.2616
Bahrami, A. (2018). The relationship between academic self-efficacy and learning strategies with academic engagement of students of Payam Noor University, Kermanshah, Ali Abdi, Master's thesis, Payam Nor University, Kermanshah, Iran.
Baumgartner, J., Litvan, Z., Koch, M., Hinterbuchinger, B., Friedrich, F., Baumann, L., & Mossaheb, N. (2020). Metacognitive beliefs in individuals at risk for psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of sex differences. neuropsychiatrie, 34(3), 108-115 (doi:10.1007/s40211-020-00348-8).
Chantharanuwong, W., Thatthong, K., Yuenyong, C., & Thomas, G. (2012). Exploring the metacognitive orientation of the science classrooms in a Thai context. Procedia social and behavioral sciences, 46, 5116-5123. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.393
‏Çikrıkci, Ö., & Odacı, H. (2013). Investigating science high school students’ metacognitive awareness and self-efficacy perceptions with respect to the some individual and academic variables Fen lisesi öğrencilerinin bilişötesi farkındalıkları ile öz yeterlik algılarının bazı kişisel ve akademik değişkenlere göre incelenmesi. Journal of Human Sciences, 10(2), 246-259. URL: https://www.j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/ijhs/article/view/2652
Daher, W., & Hashash, I. (2022). Mathematics Teachers’ Encouragement of Their Students’ Metacognitive Processes. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 12(9), 1272-1284.‏ Doi:10.3390/ejihpe12090088
Darjito, H. (2019). Students' Metacognitive Reading Awareness and Academic English Reading Comprehension in EFL Context. International Journal of Instruction, 12(4), 611-624. Doi: 10.29333/iji.2019.12439a
Deliany, Z., & Cahyono, B. Y. (2020). Metacognitive reading strategies awareness and metacognitive reading strategies use of EFL university students across gender. Studies in English Language and Education, 7(2), 421-437. doi:10.24815/siele.v7i2.17026
Demirel, M., Aşkın, İ., & Yağcı, E. (2015). An investigation of teacher candidates’ metacognitive skills. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 1521-1528. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.783
Eivers, E., & Clerkin, A. (2012). PIRLS & TIMSS 2011. Reading, mathematics and science oiriconies for Ireland. Dublin: Educational Research Centre.‏ URL: https://www.erc.ie/studies/timss/reports/
Erfani, E., Mesrabadi, J., & Zavar, T., (2013). The Effect of Teaching Learning Strategies on Educational Improvement: A Meta-Analytic Study with an Emphasis on the Moderating Role of Gender, Educational Measurement, 4(11), 1-32 [In Persian].
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of theoretical and applied statistics, 5(1), 1-4.‏ DOI: 10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
Ganji, M., Yarahmadzehi, N., & Sasani, N. (2018). English Major Students’ Awareness of Metacognitive Reading Strategies: Gender and Academic Level in Focus, Issues in Language Teaching Journal, 7(2), 91-119. doi:10.22054/ilt.2019.46700.428 [In Persian]
 Garzón, D. F., Bustos, A. P., & Lizarazo, J. O. (2020). Relationship between metacognitive skills, gender, and level of schooling in high school students. Suma Psicológica, 27(1), 9-17.‏ doi:10.14349/sumapsi.2020.v27.n1.2
Ghomi. M., Moslemi, Z., Mohammadi, S., (2016). The relationship between metacognitive strategies with self-directed learning among students of Qom University of Medical Sciences, Iranian Bimonthly of Education Strategies In Medical Sciences, 9(4), 248-259. [In Persian]
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (Eds). (2009). Handbook of metacognition in education. Routledge.‏ DOI:10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
Harding, S. M., English, N., Nibali, N., Griffin, P., Graham, L., Alom, B., & Zhang, Z. (2019). Self-regulated learning as a predictor of mathematics and reading performance: A picture of students in Grades 5 to 8. Australian journal of education, 63(1), 74-97.‏ doi:10.1177/0004944119830153
‏Hashempour, M., Ghonsooly, B., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2015). A study of translation students' self-regulation and metacognitive awareness in association with their gender and educational level. International Journal of Comparative Literature and Translation Studies. 3(3), 60-69. DOI:10.7575/aiac.ijclts.v.3n.3p.60
Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible Learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses. Relating to achievement. New York: Routledge, 29(7), 867-869. Doi:10.1080/01443410903415150
Hidayah, N., & Indriani, L. (2021). An Investigation of EFL Student's Learning Strategies Based on Gender Differences on Online Teaching and Learning. EJI (English Journal of Indragiri): Studies in Education, Literature, and Linguistics, 5(2), 190-204. Doi:10.32520/eji.v5i2.1344
Higgins, S. (2015). Self-regulation and learning: Evidence from meta-analysis and from classrooms. In BJEP Monograph Series II, Number 10-Self-Regulation and Dialogue in Primary C (Vol. 111, No. 126, pp. 111-126). British Psychological Society.‏ URL: https://dro.dur.ac.uk/11465/
Huang, S. (2022). Effect of Gender in SLA, Inspiring Gender Roles SLA Research. International Journal of Education and Humanities, 5(1), 137-141.‏ DOI:10.54097/ijeh.v5i1.1957
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual review of psychology 65, 373-398. Doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057
Izanlou, M. (2018). Iranian undergraduate EFL students metacognitive awareness in writing, M.A. Thesis, Department of English Language, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran. [in Persian]
Jhuremalani, A., Tadros, E., & Goody, A. (2022). Stereo-atypical: An Investigation into the Explicit and Implicit Gender Stereotypes in Primary School-Aged Children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 1-15.‏ doi: 10.1007/s10643-022-01355-w
Kim, P., Strathearn, L., & Swain, J. E. (2016). The maternal brain and its plasticity in humans. Hormones and behavior, 77, 113-123.‏ doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.08.001
Kim, S. H., Lee, N., & Park, C. H. (2022). Statistical Analysis on Gender Difference in Neural Activity for Spatial Ability Tasks. Open Journal of Biophysics, 13(1), 14-27. doi:10.4236/ojbiphy.2023.131002
Kolić-Vehovec, S., & Bajšanski, I. (2006). Age and gender differences in some aspects of metacognition and reading comprehension. Društvena istraživanja: časopis za opća društvena pitanja, 15(6(86)), 1005-1027. URL:https://hrcak.srce.hr/18350
Kolić-Vehovec, S., & Bajšanski, I. (2006). Metacognitive strategies and reading comprehension in elementary-school students. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(4), 439-451. Doi: 10.1007/BF03173513
Kolić‐Vehovec, S., & Bajšanski, I. (2007). Comprehension monitoring and reading comprehension in bilingual students. Journal of Research in Reading, 30(2), 198-211.‏ doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2006.00319.x
‏Kolić-Vehovec, S., Bajšanski, I., & Zubković, B. R. (2010). Metacognition and reading comprehension: Age and gender differences. In Trends and prospects in metacognition research (pp. 327-344). Springer, Boston, MA. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6546-2_15
Leaper, C. (2017). Further reflections on Sandra Lipsitz Bem’s impact. Sex Roles, 76(11), 759-765.‏ doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0760-0
Lenzo, V., Toffle, M. E., Tripodi, F., & Quattropani, M. C. (2016). Gender differences in anxiety, depression and metacognition. The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioural Sciences, 9, 1-6.‏ doi: 10.15405/epsbs.2016.05.02.1
Liliana, C., & Lavinia, H. (2011). Gender differences in metacognitive skills. A study of the 8th grade pupils in Romania. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29(1), 396-401. DOI:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.255
Masrabadi, J. (2015). Meta Analysis: concepts, software & reporting, Tabriz, Shahid Madani University Azarbaijan Publications. [In Persian]
Mejía-Rodríguez, A. M., Luyten, H., & Meelissen, M. R. (2020). Gender Differences in Mathematics Self-Concept Across the World: an Exploration of Student and Parent Data of TIMSS 2015. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 19, 1229-1250. doi: 10.1007/s10763-020-10100-x
Mesrabadi, J., Erfani Adab, E. (2014). Meta Analysis of relationship between learning strategies and academic achievement. Biquarterlyjournal of cognitive strategies in learning, 2(2), 97-118. [In Persian]
Mesrabadi, J., Erfaniabad, E., (2015). Meta-analysis of the relation between learning strategies and problem solving math performance, Quarterly Journal of Educational Innovations, 14(53), 34-55. [In Persian]
Mirzaei, M., Alavijeh, Jalili, C., Asadi, S., Solaimanizadeh, L., & Jalilian, Farzad, (2019). Role of Meta cognitive Self-Regulation in Academic Achievement among College Students, Pajouhan Scientific Journal, 17(3), 48-54. Doi: psj.17.3.48/10,52547 [In Persian]
Mohammadimehr, M., Shahmoradi, M., Sheikhi, S., & Nazari, H. (2016). Comparing Student's Learning Style and Metacognitive Strategies of Abdanan City Universities, Journal of Educational Studies (NAMA), 4(8), 1-13. [in Persian]
Mokhtari, K., Dimitrov, D. M., & Reichard, C. A. (2018). Revising the Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) and testing for factorial invariance. [In Persian]
Mosallanejad, M. (2016). The relationship between Iranian EFL learners' gender and proficiency level with respect to their metacognitive awareness of listening strategy use, M.A. Thesis, Islamik Azad University Marvdasht Brench. [In Persian]
‏Muawiyah, D., Yamtinah, S., & Indriyanti, N. Y. (2019). Modelling testlet instrument in blended learning design to assess students’ metacognition in the environmental chemistry course. Paper presented at the journal of physics: conference series, 1157(4), 1-6.  DOI 10.1088/1742-6596/1157/4/042012
Neuschmidt, O., Barth, J., & Hastedt, D. (2008). Trends in gender differences in mathematics and science (TIMSS, 1995-2003). Studies in Educational Evaluation, 34(2), 56-72.‏
Nunaki, J., Damopolli, I., Kandowangko, N., & Nusantri, E. (2019). The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning to train the students' metacognitive skills based on gender differences, 8(2), 219-246. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.3
Parviz, K., Aghamohamadian, H., Dehghani, M., Hashemabadi, B., & Ghanbari, A. (2017). Study of the relationship between superego and metacognition of male and female students, Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 19(2), 70-76. doi:10.22038/JFMH.2017.8291 [In Persian]
Parviz, K., Sharifi, M, (2011). Relationship between cognitive and metacognitive strategies and educational success in urban and rural high school students, Iranian Bimonthly of Education Strategies In Medical Sciences, 4(1), 1-6. [In Persian]
Rathi, Ebrahim. (2016). The relationship between metacognitive strategies, help-seeking styles and self-efficacy perception with anxiety and math attitude in secondary school students, Ramin Habibi, Master's thesis, Shahid Madani University of Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Iran.
Reilly, D., Neumann, D. L., & Andrews, G. (2016). Sex and sex-role differences in specific cognitive abilities. Intelligence, 54, 147-158.‏ doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2015.12.004
Risman, B. J. (2018). Gender as a social structure. In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender (pp. 19-43). Springer, Cham.‏ doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_2
Roeschl-Heils, A., Schneider, W., & van Kraayenoord, C. E. (2003). Reading, metacognition and motivation: A follow-up study of German students in grades 7 and 8. European Journal of psychology of education, 18(1), 75-86.‏ doi: 10.1007/BF03173605
Saeidi Mobarakeh, M., & Ahmadpoor, A. R. (2012). Relationship of the creativity and metacognitive skills of computer students with their programming course's grades, Iranian Bimonthly of Education Strategies In Medical Sciences, 4(3), 121-127. [In Persian]
Safari, Y., & Marzooghi, R., (2012). A comparative study of guidance school student's metacognitive awareness dimensions, Quarterly Journal of Educational Innovations, 11(42), 119-134. [In Persian]
Samadi, M. (2012). Between Motivational Orientation and learning strategies in predicting academic success. Education Strategies in Medical Sciences, 5(2), 105-111. URL: http://edcbmj.ir/article-1-247-fa.html [In Persian]‏
Saxton, T. K. (2016). Experiences during specific developmental stages in Relationship fluence face preferences. Evolution and Human Behavior, 37(1), 21-28.‏ doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.06.001
Schmitt, D. P., Long, A. E., McPhearson, A., O'Brien, K., Remmert, B., & Shah, S. H. (2017). Personality and gender differences in global perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 52(1), 45-56.‏ doi: 10.1002/ijop.12265
Schneider, M. C., & Bos, A. L. (2019). The application of social role theory to the study of gender in politics. Political Psychology, 40, 173-213.‏ doi: 10.1111/pops.12573
Seif, A. (2022). Modern Educational Psychology (Psychology of Education and Learning), Tehran: Doran Publishing House. [In Persian]
‏Siswati, B. H., & Corebima, A. D. (2017). The effect of education level and gender on students’ metacognitive skills in Malang, Indonesia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 4(4), 163-169. DoI:10.14738/assrj.44.2813
Slavin, R. E. (2019). Educational psychology: Theory and practice.‏ ISBN-13: 978-0135753118
Taddei, M., Bulgheroni, S., Riva, D., & Erbetta, A. (2023). Task-related functional neuroimaging contribution to sex/gender differences in cognition and emotion during development. Journal of neuroscience research, 101(5), 575-603. Doi: 10.1002/jnr.25143
Taghibaygi, M., & Baradaran, M., (2018). The status of metacognitive components among agricultural students in khuzestan, Journal of Agricultural Education Administration Research, 10(44), 74-96. doi: 10.22092/JAEAR.2018.114762.1459 [In Persian]
Zhang, L., Zhang, L., & Liu. (2017). Metacognitive and cognitive strategy use in reading comprehension. Springer.‏ doi: 10.1007/978-981-10-6325-1
Zouhor, Z. (2019). The Impact of the Modified Know-want-learn Strategy on Students’ Performance and Metacognition in Primary School Physics Teaching (Doctoral dissertation), University of Novi Sad (Serbia).‏